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Ms. Olcott began her historical overview in the middle of the 15th century, a period during which the Kazakhs first consolidated as an ethnic community. With a principally nomadic and tribal societal structure, they were governed by three different confederations based upon extended family networks. Around the 17th century, however, these tribal confederations gradually began to dissolve until they were largely destroyed as a consequence of Russian expansion in the 19th century.

The spread of the Russian military into Kazakhstan, which lasted through the Soviet era, brought drastic changes; the Russians, with the cooperation of some Kazakhs, engaged in a policy of collectivization that ended traditional pastoral life. The area also became a place of exile, where several prison camps were established and criminals were deported. This greatly diversified the population of Kazakhstan, which today remains a very ethnically tolerant nation.

Ms. Olcott discussed the Islamicization of Kazakhstan, which occurred in three waves: during the Arab conquest of the late 7th and early 8th centuries; at the time of the Mongol invasion in the 13th century; and during the reign of Russia’s Catherine the Great in the late 18th century.

Commenting on Kazakh society following the collapse of the Soviet Union, Ms. Olcott highlighted ethnic tolerance and border changing as the main issues faced by the newly independent nation. Kazakhstan’s current political environment was largely shaped by the challenges of that period; stabilizing the blended population of Russians and Kazakhs gave the government an excuse to delay democratic reforms. Today, the nation has defined the majority of its borders through treaties with its neighbors, and there is very little if any tension between the various ethnic groups.

Ambassador Jones concentrated her remarks on Kazakhstan after the Soviet collapse, noting the unique nature of US foreign policy towards this and other former Soviet republics. Unlike most other nations, the US decided to establish individual relations with each new country in order to better integrate them into the international community and encourage reform. The US thus developed and currently enjoys a wide-ranging bilateral relationship with Kazakhstan.

According to Ambassador Jones, upon independence Kazakhstan distinguished itself from its neighbors and strengthened its international standing in several ways. First, President Nursultan Nazarbayev introduced economic and structural reforms aimed towards bringing the country into international financial institutions. Second, Kazakhstan approached and collaborated successfully with the US to safely dispose of enriched uranium left by the Soviets; this proven ability to cooperate was an extremely important step in establishing solid relations between the two countries. Finally, Nazarbayev had maintained a good relationship with Russian leaders, enabling him to approach them firmly but respectfully and ease Kazakhstan’s transition from a Soviet satellite to Russia’s autonomous neighbor. Ambassador Jones noted, however, that political reforms lagged from the early days of the country, citing poverty and apathy from a public not accustomed to elections as the principal causes.

Ambassador Jones concluded her remarks by commenting on Kazakhstan’s future, saying that with ethnic tolerance and the rise of a generation of new political leaders, the potential for some democratic change does exist. She added that the government is making an effort both to diversify the economy away from reliance on oil and gas and to join the WTO. Nevertheless, corruption remains a significant problem in Kazakhstan and must be addressed if the nation, as the US is hoping, is to become a regional leader.